Readings
Beyond the Golden Rule: Defining "Ethics"
ethics. n sing or pl. 1) plural but singular or plural in construction : the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation
2) a : a set of moral principles or values b : a theory or system of moral values <the present-day materialistic ethic> c plural but singular or plural in construction : the principles of conduct governing an individual or a group <professional ethics> d : a guiding philosophy.
moral adj 1: of or relating to principles of right and wrong. 2: conforming to a standard of right behaviour; also : capable of right and wrong action 3: probable but not proved <a ~ certainty> 4:PSYCHOLOGICAL <a ~ victory> syn virtuous, righteous, noble.1
The dictionary definition of ethics and morals is loaded with potent words: "good and evil", "principles", "duty", and "right and wrong". We tend to think of ethics as a simple system; one which we believe we are supposed to know almost by intuition, based on values taught to us by our parents and other teachers. As adults, we are confronted with decisions that require careful thought and involve a system more complicated and riskier than the system taught to us as children.
As equally potent in the dictionary definition are the words "discipline", "practice" ,and "behaviour." Ethics is not about intuiting the right decision, but about a constant development of a system for ethical decision making. For purposes of discussing ethics for the computing industry, certain principles apply:
- ethical claims can be discussed rationally
- ethical claims must be defended with reason
- ethical choices cannot be avoided
- some easy ethical approaches are questionable
An ethics system requires developing ethical skills:
- arguing from example, analogy, and counter-examples
- identifying ethical principles and stakeholders
- identifying and evaluating alternative courses of action
- applying ethical codes (whether these be religious, professional, business, or personal)
Some Major Ethical Themes
Major themes have evolved in ethical theories. This course will focus on the following:
- Virtue Ethics - with roots in Plato and Aristotle (and even ancient Chinese philosophy), virtue ethics emphasizes virtue, or moral character, to allow the individual to achieve overall "flourishing" within society. For the Greeks, the virtues included courage, prudence, temperance and justice; for St. Thomas Acquinas, faith, hope and charity; and for the Industrial Age philosophers, industry, honesty and trust.
- Divine Command Theory - with a belief in a deity who has communicated what is right and wrong to humans, points to religious authoritative texts as the rules for moral decision-making.
- Deontologism - Emphasizes the rule. Some actions are wrong, no matter how "good" the consequences. Deontologism supports creating a good society by having people "do good". One variation of this theme is based on the central idea in Kantian formalism that people are to be treated as ends, not means.
- Utilitarianism - Emphasizes the result. With proponents Jeremy Bentham (1789), John Stuart Mill (1861), and Henry Sidgwick (1907), utilitarianism seeks to maximize overall "happiness". The ethical act is one that creates the greatest good for the greatest number (but there are many considerations in this "equation"). Be able to distinguish between Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism.
- Natural Rights - This theme emphasizes negotiation and consensus agreement. Natural rights recognizes the entitlement to act without interference (liberties) or to obligate others to act on one's behalf (claim-rights). Sometimes described as allowing an individual to act within a sphere of freedom; once outside that sphere, requires voluntary interaction with others to resolve conflicts. Treats peoples as ends and strives to increase overall happiness. John Locke's (b. 1632, d. 1704) radical version of natural rights strongly influenced the American and French revolutions. Be able to apply the Social Contract Theory.
The Ethical Analysis
A. Identify the ethically relevant facts
- Who is the ethical agent (that is, the person who needs to make an ethical decision)?
- What are the ethical agent's alternative actions?
- Who are the stakeholders (the persons who might be adversely affected by the agent's act)?
- What are the consequences to the ethical agent and the stakeholders of each alternative action?
B. Apply the ethics tests to each alternative, comparing the results to determine whether the alternative action is ethical, unethical, or ethically neutral.
- Virtue Test - based on virtue ethics, what would this alternative say about the character of the ethical agent? What would other people think?
- Ends Not Means - does the alternative treat the stakeholders with respect, does it recognize the stakeholders' autonomy, and does it support the rights of others? Would you recommend that this alternative action become a universal rule?
- Harm / Benefit Test - based on utilitarian arguments, does the alternative provide more harm than good to the greatest number of people?
- Code of Ethics - this test applies a particular code of ethics, such as an ethics policy for a company, or the ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct (available at http://www.acm.org/constitution/code.html).
- Feasibility - lastly, is the alternative action viable within the following constraints: time, money, law, personal, and social / cultural / political? Remember, no space aliens will rescue the ethical agent from having to make a decision.
C. Sort the alternatives into the spectrum of ethical-neutral-unethical and choose the alternative that is most appropriate and viable.
References:
1. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (available at http://www.merriam-webster.com).
2. For a indepth discussion of ethical philosophies, see Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (available at http://plato.stanford.edu/).